Chapter 6 The Three Orders

An Introduction To Feudalism

In western Europe between the ninth and sixteenth centuries, significant socio-economic and political changes occurred following the fall of the Roman Empire. Germanic tribes occupied former Roman territories, leading to frequent military conflicts and a social organization centered on land control, influenced by both Roman traditions and Germanic customs. Christianity, the empire's official religion, survived Rome's collapse and spread across Europe, with the Church becoming a major landholder and political power. This period saw the emergence of a social structure based on three "orders": clergy (prayers), nobility (fighting), and peasantry (working). The evolving relationships between these groups shaped European history for centuries.

European historians, particularly from the last century, have extensively studied regional and village histories, utilizing a wealth of documents, landownership records, price details, and legal cases. Church records of births, marriages, and deaths provide insights into family and population structures. Church inscriptions detail traders' associations, while songs and stories offer glimpses into festivals and community activities. These sources help historians understand economic and social life, tracking long-term changes like population growth and short-term events like peasant revolts. Scholars like Marc Bloch emphasized the importance of geography and the collective behavior of people in shaping history, contributing significantly to the study of feudalism in European society between 900 and 1300.

Feudalism: Economic, Legal, Political, Social Relationships

Feudalism, derived from the German word 'feud' (meaning 'a piece of land'), describes the complex web of economic, legal, political, and social relationships that characterized medieval European society, particularly in France, England, and southern Italy. Economically, it was based on agricultural production where peasants cultivated both their own land and the lord's land, providing labor services in exchange for the lord's military protection and judicial control.

Emergence Of Feudalism

Feudalism's roots are traced to practices within the Roman Empire and the era of Charlemagne (742-814). However, it became an established way of life across much of Europe, particularly emerging in the eleventh century.

France And England

Gaul, a Roman province, was named 'France' after being settled by the Germanic Franks. Ruled by Christian Frankish kings from the sixth century, France had strong ties with the Church, further solidified when Pope Leo III crowned King Charlemagne "Holy Roman Emperor" in 800. Across the English Channel, England was conquered in the eleventh century by William, Duke of Normandy, leading to frequent wars between France and England due to territorial and trade disputes.

The Three Orders

French priests conceptualized society as divided into three orders based on occupation: the clergy (those who pray), the nobility (those who fight), and the peasantry (those who work). This division was seen as divinely ordained, maintaining social order and preventing chaos. The nobility, comprising landowners, held a central role due to their control over land through a system called "vassalage." Nobles were vassals of the king, and peasants were vassals of the nobles, bound by mutual promises of protection and loyalty, often formalized through rituals and symbolic land grants. Nobles enjoyed privileged status, perpetual control over their property, the right to raise troops (feudal levies), and judicial and coinage powers. Their manors, vast estates including dwellings, private fields, pastures, peasant homes, and fortifications, were largely self-sufficient but required external supplies for luxury goods.

Knights, a distinct military class, emerged from the ninth century due to the need for effective cavalry in frequent localized wars. Knights received fiefs (land) from lords in exchange for regular fees and military service. They trained daily in combat skills and owed primary loyalty to their lord. Minstrels often traveled between manors, entertaining nobles with songs and stories about brave knights, serving as popular storytellers in an era of limited literacy.

The clergy, forming the first order, operated under the authority of the Pope in Rome and were guided by bishops and clerics. They owned vast landed estates, levied taxes (tithes), and received endowments. Certain individuals, like serfs and the physically challenged, were barred from priesthood, and priests could not marry. Bishops, akin to landed lords, lived in grand palaces. Church ceremonies often mirrored feudal customs, such as the act of kneeling in prayer and the use of the term "lord" for God. Devout Christians also formed monastic communities (abbeys or monasteries), living isolated lives dedicated to prayer, study, and manual labor. Monks and nuns took vows of lifelong commitment and celibacy. Monasteries grew into large communities with schools, hospitals, and contributed to the arts. Friars, a later development, chose to live outside monasteries, preaching and relying on charity.

The First Order: The Clergy

The clergy constituted the first order, headed by the Pope in Rome. They were guided by bishops and priests, owned vast landed estates, levied taxes (tithes), and received endowments. While bishops held a status similar to landed nobility, priests were celibate. Certain individuals were excluded from priesthood, and women could not become priests.

The Second Order: The Nobility

The nobility formed the second order, characterized by their control of land through vassalage. They were linked to the king and lesser lords through mutual promises of protection and loyalty. Nobles enjoyed privileged status, managed their manors (estates), controlled judicial and military power, and had their own troops (feudal levies). Knights, a specialized military group, received fiefs from lords in exchange for service and loyalty.

The Third Order: Peasants, Free And Unfree

The peasantry formed the vast majority of the population and sustained the other two orders. Peasants were divided into free peasants, who rented land from lords and owed labor services and military duty, and serfs, who were tied to the lord's land, owed significant produce and labor, and required the lord's permission for marriage or leaving the estate. Serfs were subject to the lord's monopolies on essential services like milling and baking.

Monks

Devout Christians formed monastic communities called abbeys or monasteries, dedicated to prayer, study, and manual labor. Monks and nuns took vows of lifelong commitment and celibacy. Monasteries often possessed large landed estates, schools, hospitals, and contributed to the arts. Friars, a later development, chose a mobile life of preaching and charity.

The Church And Society

Despite adopting Christianity, Europeans retained some old beliefs in magic and folk traditions. Christian holidays like Christmas and Easter replaced older festivals, becoming important dates. Peasants welcomed holidays as breaks from labor, often using them for prayer, feasting, and pilgrimage. The Church's influence was significant, shaping social customs and even mirroring feudal hierarchies in its practices.

Factors Affecting Social And Economic Relations

Several factors influenced social and economic relations within the feudal system. Environmental changes, such as a shift from cold, short growing seasons between the fifth and tenth centuries to warmer, longer seasons from the eleventh century onwards, significantly impacted agriculture. This warming trend led to the expansion of arable land and improved soil productivity. Initially, agricultural technology was primitive, with wooden ploughs only scratching the soil, and inefficient crop rotation (two-field system) leading to soil deterioration and frequent famines. However, by the eleventh century, technological advancements emerged, including heavy iron-tipped ploughs with mould-boards, improved animal harnessing (shoulder-harness), iron horseshoes, and the increased use of wind and water power for mills. A revolutionary change was the switch to a three-field system, allowing for more intensive land use and a significant increase in food production. This improved food availability led to population growth and longer lifespans.

The peasant farm size decreased, allowing for more efficient cultivation and freeing up labor for other activities. While some technological innovations like watermills were costly, lords often took the initiative. Peasants, however, took initiative in extending arable land, adopting the three-field system, and establishing village forges for tools. The weakening of personal feudal bonds from the eleventh century onwards saw a shift towards money-based economic transactions, with lords preferring cash rents and peasants selling crops for money. This increasing use of money influenced prices, leading to higher costs during poor harvests.

The Environment

From the fifth to the tenth centuries, Europe experienced a cold climate with short growing seasons, limiting agriculture and forcing peasants to flee to forests to escape oppression. From the eleventh century, a warmer climate led to longer growing seasons, improved soil, and the expansion of arable land.

Land Use

Early agricultural technology was primitive, with wooden ploughs and an inefficient two-field crop rotation system. This resulted in soil deterioration and frequent famines. Lords sought to maximize incomes by forcing peasants to cultivate all available land and perform extra services, leading to passive resistance from peasants.

New Agricultural Technology

Technological advancements by the eleventh century included heavy iron-tipped ploughs, improved animal harnessing, iron horseshoes, and increased use of water and wind power for mills. The revolutionary three-field crop rotation system almost doubled food production, improved diet, and increased peasant efficiency.

Increasing Use Of Money

From the eleventh century, feudal ties weakened as economic transactions became increasingly money-based. Lords preferred cash rents, and peasants sold crops for money, influencing prices and leading to higher costs during poor harvests. This shift impacted the economic and social relationships between lords and peasants.

A Fourth Order? New Towns And Townspeople

The growth in agriculture from the eleventh century onwards was accompanied by increases in population, trade, and towns. Europe's population grew significantly, and better food led to longer lifespans. Towns, which had declined after the fall of the Roman Empire, began to revive as centers for trade and crafts. Peasants with surplus grain needed markets to sell their produce and buy tools and cloth, leading to the growth of periodic fairs and marketing centers. These gradually developed town-like features, including town squares, churches, roads with merchant shops, and administrative offices. Towns also grew around castles, bishops' estates, or large churches. In towns, people paid taxes to the landowning lords instead of providing services. Towns offered the prospect of paid work and freedom from manorial control, attracting young people from peasant families. The saying "town air makes free" reflected this, as serfs could gain freedom by residing in a town for a year and a day. Towns provided opportunities for unskilled labor, shopkeeping, merchandising, and specialized professions like banking and law. Many towns had populations of around 30,000, forming a distinct "fourth order" in society. The economic organization in towns was based on guilds, which controlled product quality, prices, and sales. Guild-halls served as ceremonial centers where guild heads met. By the eleventh century, new trade routes with West Asia developed, and Scandinavian and English merchants engaged in trade, exchanging goods like furs, hunting hawks, cloth, and tin. Craftsmen began to settle in towns to facilitate production and trade, leading to the growth of rich and powerful town merchants who rivaled the nobility.

Growth Of Towns

Following agricultural expansion and population growth from the eleventh century, towns began to revive. Peasants needed markets to sell surplus produce and buy goods, leading to the development of marketing centers, fairs, and eventually towns with typical features like squares, churches, and merchant shops.

Townsmen And Guilds

Towns attracted people seeking work and freedom from manorial control. A new social group, the "townsmen," emerged, including free peasants, escaped serfs, laborers, shopkeepers, merchants, bankers, and lawyers. Crafts were organized into guilds, associations that regulated product quality, prices, and sales.

Trade Routes And Merchants

New trade routes with West Asia developed from the eleventh century, facilitating the exchange of goods like furs, cloth, and tin. Craftsmen settled in towns to produce and trade goods, leading to the rise of wealthy and influential town merchants who challenged the power of the nobility.

Cathedral-towns

From the twelfth century, the construction of large churches, known as cathedrals, became a significant feature in France. Rich merchants often donated to their construction, and various groups contributed labor, materials, or money. Built of stone over many years, these cathedrals led to increased population in surrounding areas, transforming them into pilgrimage centers and fostering the growth of small towns. Cathedrals were architecturally designed to enhance acoustics for sermons and choir singing, and their tall structures with bells could be heard over long distances. Stained glass windows narrated biblical stories through pictures, serving as visual texts for the illiterate population. Abbot Suger's description of the Abbey of St Denis highlights the desire to enlarge and beautify the church, employing skilled craftsmen and appointing an official to protect the valuable stained glass windows.

Architecture And Construction

Cathedrals, large stone churches built from the twelfth century, often took many years to complete. Their construction led to the growth of surrounding towns, which became pilgrimage centers. Architectural designs aimed to improve acoustics for services and allow sunlight to illuminate the interior through stained glass windows.

Stained Glass Windows

Stained glass windows were a key feature of cathedrals, narrating biblical stories through intricate pictures. These windows served as a visual medium for religious instruction, allowing even illiterate individuals to understand the Bible's narratives.

The Crisis Of The Fourteenth Century

By the early fourteenth century, Europe's economic expansion slowed due to several factors. Colder summers reduced growing seasons and crop yields, and intensive farming practices had exhausted the soil despite the three-field system. Shortages of pasture reduced livestock numbers, leading to population growth outstripping resources and causing severe famines (1315-1317), followed by widespread cattle deaths. Trade was further impacted by a shortage of metal money due to declining silver output, forcing governments to debase currency. The most devastating blow was the arrival of the bubonic plague (the "Black Death") between 1347 and 1350, carried by ships and rats, which killed an estimated 20% of Europe's population, with some areas losing up to 40%. This catastrophe, combined with the economic crisis, caused immense social dislocation. Depopulation led to a severe labor shortage, with surviving workers able to demand higher wages and better conditions. This severely impacted lords' incomes, as agricultural prices fell and labor costs rose. Peasants, particularly the more prosperous ones, resisted attempts to revive labor services, leading to widespread revolts in Flanders (1323), France (1358), and England (1381). Despite brutal suppression, these revolts signified the peasants' determination to protect their gains and the inability to fully reimpose old feudal relations due to the advanced money economy.

Economic Slowdown

By the early fourteenth century, economic expansion declined due to climate change (colder summers, reduced growing seasons), soil exhaustion from intensive farming, and a shortage of metal money caused by declining silver mine output.

The Black Death

The bubonic plague, arriving in Europe between 1347 and 1350, decimated the population, killing an estimated 20% of Europeans. Trade centers and monasteries were particularly hard hit. This demographic catastrophe led to a severe labor shortage.

Social Unrest And Peasant Revolts

The labor shortage following the plague resulted in increased wages and peasant demands for better conditions. When lords attempted to revert to labor services, peasants revolted in Flanders (1323), France (1358), and England (1381). Despite suppression, these revolts demonstrated peasant resistance and prevented the full reimposition of earlier feudal relations.

Political Changes

In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, European kings consolidated their power, strengthening military and financial capabilities to create powerful new states. These "new monarchs," such as Louis XI of France, Maximilian of Austria, Henry VII of England, and Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, established standing armies, permanent bureaucracies, and national taxation systems. They played a role in overseas expansion, particularly Spain and Portugal. The success of these monarchies was largely due to social changes in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, which weakened the feudal system of lordship and vassalage. Kings shifted from relying on feudal levies to employing professionally trained infantry equipped with firearms and siege artillery, directly under their command. The aristocracy's resistance crumbled against this military power. By increasing taxes, monarchs funded larger armies, defended frontiers, and overcame internal opposition. However, centralization faced resistance, often centered on taxation issues, leading to rebellions in England and struggles against dukes and princes in France. Lesser nobles resisted the erosion of their powers, and religious wars in France partly reflected this conflict between royal authority and regional liberties. The nobility adapted by transforming from opponents to loyalists, becoming integrated into administrative services. Royal absolutism became a modified form of feudalism, with the king at the center of a courtier society and a network of patron-client relationships. Money became crucial for patronage, allowing merchants and bankers to gain influence by lending money to kings for military expenses, thus integrating non-feudal elements into the state system. In France, kings increasingly avoided consulting the Estates-General to maintain power. In England, the development of Parliament, comprising the House of Lords and the House of Commons, meant kings eventually had to consult it regularly, especially when needing funds, leading to significant political divergences between the two nations.

The Rise Of New Monarchs

From the fifteenth century, European kings strengthened their power by establishing standing armies, permanent bureaucracies, and national taxation systems. Figures like Louis XI of France and Henry VII of England are examples of these "new monarchs."

Centralisation Of Power

Monarchs centralized power by undermining the feudal system, replacing feudal levies with professional armies equipped with firearms, and increasing taxes to fund these forces. This shift reduced the aristocracy's resistance and enhanced royal authority.

Royal Absolutism

Royal absolutism emerged as a modified form of feudalism, where kings, at the center of courtier societies and patron-client networks, exercised greater control. Patronage, often involving money, allowed non-aristocratic elements like merchants to gain influence.

Patronage And Non-Aristocratic Elements

Money became a key tool for patronage, enabling merchants and bankers to lend funds to kings for military expenses. This integration of non-feudal elements into the state system began to reshape political power structures.

Parliamentary Power In England

Unlike France, where kings increasingly bypassed the Estates-General, England's Parliament, evolving from the Anglo-Saxon Great Council, gained significant power. Kings were compelled to consult Parliament, especially for financial matters, which eventually led to conflicts and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy.